在女性表現不佳的假設中表示，與男性企業家相比，女性企業家在傳統的經濟績效衡量標準可能不太成功。支持這一假說的證據大多來自綜合資料統計，而綜合資料統計排除了行業和地域等關鍵結構性因素，可能會導致誤導性結論及不準確的預測。有幾項研究試圖檢驗女性表現不佳的假說，但結果仍是好壞參半。近來，越來越多的文獻對女性領導之企業和男性領導之企業進行了調查，如: 在環境績效、賄賂傾向及附帶的福利提供等非經濟結果方面的性別差異，而且這種調查還在不斷增加。
現有研究表明，女性企業家對環境問題表現出更大的關注，並與減低賄賂和腐敗以及向員工提供更高水準的附帶福利有顯著相關。過往的研究大多以已開發國家為背景，而開發中國家的制度、文化和經濟程度與已開發經濟體相差甚遠。為了響應聯合國採取行動改善健康和教育、減少不平等和應對氣候變遷的緊急呼籲，本研究旨在探討企業主之性別與企業在環境、賄賂和員工附帶福利方面的績效之間的關係。
本研究採用女性主義方法來調查企業創辦人的性別是否能預測越南女性和男性在中小企業之間的結果差異。使用 2011-2015 年越南中小型企業資料庫和熵平衡法，我們的研究結果表明，在控制結構因素的情況下，性別對我們感興趣的任何變數都沒有顯著影響。
這支持了女性和男性企業家同樣有能力擔任領導職務的論點。因此，自由女性主義視角似乎更適合解釋越南的商業環境。
。

The hypothesis of female underperformance suggests that female entrepreneurs may be less successful in conventional economic performance measures compared to their male counterparts. Most of the evidence supporting this hypothesis is drawn from aggregate data statistics whose exclusion of key structural factors such as industry and geography may result in misleading conclusions and inaccurate predictions. Several studies have attempted to test the female underperformance hypothesis, but their findings remain mixed. More recently, a large and growing body of literature has investigated gender differences in the non-economic outcomes, such as environmental performance, bribe tendency, and fringe benefit provision, between women-led and men-led firms. Existing studies indicate that female entrepreneurs exhibit greater concern for environmental issues and are significantly associated with a reduction of bribery and corruption as well as a higher level of fringe benefit support allocated to employees. The majority of previous work is situated in a developed country context, while the institution, culture, and economic levels in the developing world are far different from those in the developed economies. In order to respond to an urgent call of the United Nations for action to improve health and education, reduce inequality and tackle climate change, this research seeks to examine the relationships between the gender of business owners and firms’ performance with respect to environment, bribes, and employees’ fringe benefits. The current research adopts feminist approaches to investigate whether gender of founders can predict the outcome differences between women-owned and men-owned small and medium enterprises in Vietnam. Using the Viet Nam SMEs database for 2011-2015 and entropy balancing method, our findings reveal that gender has no significant impact on any of our variables of interest when controlling for structural factors. This supports the argument that both female and male entrepreneurs are equally capable of leadership positions. Consequently, the liberal feminist perspective appears to be more suitable for explaining the business environment in Vietnam.

Table of Contents

Dissertation Validation Letter _______________________________________________ i
Acknowledgement _______________________________________________________ ii
摘要 ___________________________________________________________________ iii
Abstract________________________________________________________________ iv
Table of figures __________________________________________________________ vii
Table of tables __________________________________________________________ viii
Chapter 1 Introduction____________________________________________________ 1
1.1. Introduction _________________________________________________________ 1
1.2. Research questions ___________________________________________________ 7
1.3. Importance of Research _______________________________________________ 7
1.4. Scope and context of this dissertation ____________________________________ 8
Chapter 2 Literature review and hypothesis development________________________10
2.1. Liberal Feminism _____________________________________________________10
2.2. Social Feminist Theory ________________________________________________ 11
2.2.1. Gender socialization_________________________________________________ 12
2.2.2. Board gender diversity_______________________________________________ 13
2.3. Gender and Environmental Performance _________________________________ 16
2.3.1. Introduction _______________________________________________________ 16
2.3.2. Gender Differences in Environmental Concerns and Perception______________ 18
2.3.3. Gender socialization and sustainable business practices____________________ 19
2.4. Gender and Corruption in Business_______________________________________23
2.4.1. Introduction________________________________________________________23
2.4.2. Gender and Corruption_______________________________________________ 26
2.4.3. Corruption in business and hypotheses development______________________ 31
2.5. Gender and Fringe benefit provision______________________________________33
2.5.1. Introduction________________________________________________________33
2.5.2. Fringe benefits as wage substitutes_____________________________________ 37
2.5.3. Theoretical perspectives and hypotheses development_____________________39
Chapter 3 Methodology____________________________________________________44
3.1. Data________________________________________________________________44
3.2. Variable definition____________________________________________________ 46
3.2.1 Outcome variables___________________________________________________46
3.2.2. Covariates_________________________________________________________ 48
3.3. Empirical strategy: Statistical matching___________________________________ 54
Chapter 4 Empirical Results________________________________________________ 59
4.1. Descriptive statistics__________________________________________________ 59
4.2. Gender and EFP______________________________________________________65
4.3. Gender and Corruption________________________________________________70
4.4. Gender and Fringe benefit provision_____________________________________ 72
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussions______________________________________ 74
References_____________________________________________________________ 78

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