本研究探討印尼的海洋國家身份如何透過三項核心論述建構而成，分別為1957年《朱安達宣言》、1973年Wawasan Nusantara（群島觀）以及2014年「全球海洋樞紐」構想。本研究旨在理解為何印尼出現多種與海洋相關的國家論述，更具體地說，是為了探討這些論述中對海洋身份的詮釋，以及這些詮釋者是誰。本文以亞歷山大·溫特的國際關係建構主義理論為基礎，並結合規範導向的建構主義觀點，提出「國家身份倡導者」與「建構性詮釋」兩個概念，藉此補充溫特理論中對於國家層次身份建構探討的不足，該理論原本主要聚焦於國際體系層級。
透過對官方文件與演說內容的分析，本文發現：第一，在《朱安達宣言》中，Mochtar Kusumaatmadja 扮演了國家身份倡導者的角色，根據「土地與海洋一體」（tanah air）與「群島」（nusantara）的概念，建構印尼作為一個群島國家的身份，同時批判國際法體系中的雙重標準。第二，在蘇哈托的新秩序時期，Wawasan Nusantara 擴展了群島國家的身份概念，涵蓋政治、經濟、社會文化、國防與安全的整合，其背後是對國家身份的詮釋以及對區域不穩定與國家韌性的關切。第三，Rizal Sukma 與佐科·維多多透過「全球海洋樞紐」倡議，共同推動印尼作為海洋強國的身份。兩人皆認為印尼是具有海權潛能的群島國家，但 Sukma 著重於地緣政治格局的變化，主張應擴展印尼外交政策的重心至東南亞以外地區；而佐科總統則關注地緣經濟競爭，強調提升印尼海洋競爭力的必要性。
本研究提出三項主要論點：第一，印尼的海洋國家身份在三項海洋論述中經歷了延續、擴張與恢復等階段；第二，國家身份倡導者在身份建構過程中扮演構想者、敘事者與推動者等關鍵角色；第三，雖然對國家身份的詮釋持續圍繞「群島國家」這一核心概念，但對區域與國際政治情勢的詮釋則因時代背景與詮釋者視角的不同而各異。理論上，本文透過引入行動者導向的詮釋，對溫特的建構主義理論加以補充，進一步說明國家身份如何透過對國族認同與對外互動的詮釋而建構，同時也強化了溫特關於國家身份是社會建構之產物的核心主張。

This study explores the construction of Indonesia’s maritime state identity through three key doctrines: the 1957 Djuanda Declaration, the 1973 Wawasan Nusantara (Archipelagic Outlook), and the 2014 Global Maritime Fulcrum. It aims to understand why there are various maritime-related doctrines, more specifically, what the interpretation of maritime identity within these doctrines is and who interpreted it. Drawing on Alexander Wendt’s constructivist theory of International Relations and integrating norm-based constructivist insights, the study introduces the concepts of state identity entrepreneurs and constitutive interpretations to understand how state identity is constructed at the national level—an area underexplored in Wendt’s framework due to its systemic focus.
Based on an analysis of official documents and speeches, this study finds that, first, in the Djuanda Declaration, Dr. Mochtar Kusumaatmadja acted as a state identity entrepreneur, constructing Indonesia as an archipelagic state rooted in the concept of tanah air and nusantara, while critiquing the double standards of the international law. Second, under Soeharto’s New Order, the archipelagic identity was expanded in Wawasan Nusantara to include political, economic, socio-cultural, defense, and security unity, driven by interpretations of national identity and concern over regional instability and national resilience. Third, Dr. Rizal Sukma and Joko Widodo promoted a maritime power identity through the Global Maritime Fulcrum. While both recognized Indonesia as an archipelagic state with sea power capability, Sukma emphasizes shifting geopolitical dynamics and the need to broaden Indonesia’s foreign policy’s focus beyond Southeast Asia, whereas Widodo highlighted geoeconomic competition and efforts to enhance Indonesia’s maritime competitiveness.
This study offers three key arguments. First, Indonesia’s maritime state identity has experienced sustainability, expansion, and restoration across three doctrines. Second, state identity entrepreneurs play pivotal roles as conceptors, narrators, and promoters. Third, while interpretations of national identity consistently center on the concept of an archipelagic state, the interpretations of regional and international political dynamics vary depending on the specific context and the perspectives of the state identity entrepreneurs. Theoretically, this study contributes to Wendtian constructivism by incorporating actor-driven interpretations, providing a more grounded understanding of how state identity is constructed through the interpretations of national identity and the state’s external interactions. It also reinforces Wendt’s claim that state identity is socially constructed.

Table of Contents

Dissertation Validation Letter i
Acknowledgment ii
Chinese Abstract vi
English Abstractvii
Table of Contents ix
List of Figures xiii
List of Tables xv
List of Abbreviations xvi
Chapter One. Introduction
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement and Research Questions 4
1.3 Objective and Significance 6
1.4 Research Method 7
1.5 Organization of Study 9
Chapter Two. State Identity and The Wendtian Theory
2.1 Introduction13
2.2 Nationalism, National Identity, and IR Theories 14
2.3 Wendtian Constructivism and State Identity Formation
2.3.1 Systemic Perspective and Limited-Anthropomorphism 21
2.3.2 State Identity Formation 25
2.4 Conclusion 32
Chapter Three. State Identity Entrepreneurs and Constitutive Interpretations
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 National and State Identity 37
3.3 Critics of The Wendtian Theory 50
3.4 Norm-based Constructivist’s Insights 57
3.5 State Identity Entrepreneurs and Constitutive Interpretations 64
3.6 Contrasting Perspectives 70
3.7 Framework of Study 76
3.8 Conclusion 78
Chapter Four. The Maritime of Indonesia: Origins of National Identity, Doctrines,
and Foreign Policy
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Source of National Identity
4.2.1 Geographic Situation 82
4.2.2 People and Culture 87
4.2.3 History 92
4.3 Maritime-related Doctrines
4.3.1 The 1957 Djuanda Declaration 95
4.3.2 The 1973 Wawasan Nusantara (the Archipelagic Outlook) 101
4.3.3 The 2014 Global Maritime Fulcrum (GMF) 108
4.4 Maritime-related Foreign Policies
4.4.1 Diplomacy at the UNCLOS 114
4.4.2 Maritime Border Agreements with Neighboring States 119
4.4.3 Maritime Cooperations 122
4.4.4 The 2019 Maritime Diplomacy White Paper 125
4.5 Conclusion 128
Chapter Five. Maritime State Identity in the 1957 Djuanda Declaration
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Maritime State and National Leaders Narratives 132
5.3 Mochtar Kusumaatmadja as State Identity Entrepreneur 147
5.4 Kusumaatmadja’s Interpretation of National Identity 157
5.5 Kusumaatmadja’s Interpretation of International Law Regime 160
5.6 Constitutive Interpretations of Maritime State Identity 172
5.7 Conclusion 175
Chapter Six. Maritime State Identity in the Wawasan Nusantara
6.1 Introduction 177
6.2 Soeharto as State Identity Entrepreneur 178
6.3 Soeharto’s Interpretation of National Identity185
6.4 Soeharto’s Interpretation of Regional and International Political Dynamics 189
6.5 Constitutive Interpretations of Maritime State Identity 198
6.6 Conclusion 203
Chapter Seven. Maritime State Identity in the Global Maritime Fulcrum
7.1 Introduction 206
7.2 Rizal Sukma and Joko Widodo as State Identity Entrepreneurs 210
7.3 Interpretations of National Identity 213
7.4 Interpretation of Regional and International Political Dynamics
7.4.1 Geopolitical Shift, the Emergence of Maritime as a Significant Issue, and the
Leadership Beyond Traditional Region 218
7.4.2 Regional Economic Competition, Maritime Competitiveness, and Opportunities
Within Geopolitics Rivalries 227
7.5 Constitutive Interpretations of Maritime State Identity 238
7.6 Conclusion 242
Chapter Eight. Conclusion
8.1 Summary 244
8.2 Maritime State Identity of Indonesia
8.2.1 Sustainability, Expansion, and Restoration 249
8.2.2 The State Identity Entrepreneurs: Conceptor, Narrator, and Promoter 252
8.2.3 Constitutive Interpretations: Continuity and Dynamics 258
8.3 Agency in State Identity Formation within Wendtian Theory 261
8.4 Future Research 266
References 268
Appendix 1. Number of Islands in Each Province of Indonesia 321
Appendix 2. Number of Coastal Villages in Indonesia (2023) 323
Appendix 3. Indonesia’s Maritime Boundary Delimitation Agreements 324
Appendix 4. Maritime-related Agreement between Indonesia and other State 327
Appendix 5. Wawasan Nusantara 334

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