本論文旨在探討學術界專家和媒體名人如何影響菲律賓人對菲律賓戒嚴時代的看法。它由三項研究組成，旨在徹底調查對真相和記憶的不同解釋以及對歷史的不斷重新解釋如何影響公眾輿論。該研究採用不同的方法和數據類型，旨在為這一現象提供實證和可測量的見解。
第一項研究以系統性文獻回顧了 1972 年至 2023 年菲律賓戒嚴時期的學術演變及發展。儘管戒嚴時期於菲律賓歷史有重大意義，但目前還沒有相關的系統性文獻回顧有關此時期的主流學術成果。本研究透過「社會科學家的聲音」（即學者、歷史學家和政治學家），描繪他們如何透過科學及學術研究，提供科學論證和這段爭議性時期的歷史解釋。在使用 VOSviewer 網路分析後，其結果顯示了圍繞菲律賓戒嚴時期現有文獻的七個主題—（1）回憶Marcos政權、（2）菲律賓的技術官僚統治、（3）比較角度的歷史修正主義、（4）抗議和暴動、（5）生存敘事、（6）和平與暴力以及（7）Imelda Marcos和美國的角色。此系統性回顧主要涵蓋了對菲律賓這段歷史時期的普遍批判。然而，相關的學術出版物似乎很少，而且在傳播戒嚴時期的科學歷史敘述方面缺乏一致性的關注，這可能導致菲律賓人在科學解釋上對這一重大事件的了解有限。
雖然專家和學者對於正規教育中如何描述和教授戒嚴時期採取了更批判性的立場，但一些有影響力的媒體人物（即名人和網紅）在重塑人們對這段有爭議的歷史事件的看法方面發揮著重要作用。許多人聲稱，最近的總統選舉結果對兒子和同名馬可斯有利，很大程度上是由於媒體人士傳播虛假訊息、錯誤訊息和假新聞的影響，即所謂的「歷史修正主義」。儘管有如此強而有力的主張，這些論點缺乏實證和可量化的證據。因此，研究2和研究3集中在此爭論的實證方面—分別透過對次級數據和初級調查數據的定量分析來關注可檢驗的主張—作為其調查的核心基礎。
第二項研究透過世界價值觀調查 7 (WVS 7) 的數據來比較菲律賓人對名人主導機構和專家主導機構的信任度，提供了名人主導地位的經驗性證據。這項研究測試菲律賓人的整體教育程度素養是否能夠預測：人們相比專家主導的機構，對於名人主導機構較為信任。最後，本研究透過托尼岡薩加(Toni Gonzaga) 採訪邦邦馬科斯 (Bongbong Marcos) 的 YouTube 影片來檢視觀眾的情緒，從而衡量名人利用社群媒體平台的有效性。本研究使用 t 檢定、回歸分析和文字探勘（即文字雲、TF-IDF 和情緒分析）等方法分析名人對菲律賓人的顯著影響。
第三項研究旨在進一步強化研究 2 的主張，證明名人的力量在影響個人對戒嚴時期的態度。第三項研究探討了來源可信度（SC）和擬社會互動（PI）如何影響菲律賓學生參與有關馬可斯和戒嚴制度討論的行為意圖（BI）。當讓學生接觸三種情況（名人、專家和名人專家）之一時，研究顯示了具說服力的證據：（a）名人被視為可靠的來源，因此可以顯著預測受訪者對於名人的正向行為意圖，但對專家則持負面態度；且(b) 擬社會互動顯著影響這三種情境下的行為意圖。有趣的是，在剖析來源可信度時，(c) 儘管戒嚴時期本身的歷史作為主體，來源可信度的專業方面並沒有顯著地在各個情況預測出行為意圖。最後，在剖析擬社會互動向度時，（d）其中的「興趣」向度似乎在與名人及專家的身份情況有關時是一個正向且重要的行為意圖指標；（e）而另一個「認同」向度則在橫跨三個情況時是正向且重要的指標。(這些研究的結果共同強調了一個顯著的趨勢：名人影響力的範圍不斷擴大，現在已經擴展到傳統上的專家的領域。這一轉變突顯了名人的影響力日益增長，超越了傳統上專業知識和專家權威為優先的領域。菲律賓人對名人的信任優先於對專家的信任引發了一些擔憂及可能造成的後果，主要是增加了對錯誤訊息和虛假訊息的敏感度，而對菲律賓社會研究教育、政策制定者和教育工作者的影響則將會在後續討論。

This dissertation seeks to explore how experts in the academic community and media celebrities impact Filipinos' views of the Martial Law era in the Philippines. It consists of three studies designed to thoroughly investigate how differing interpretations of truth and memory, along with ongoing reinterpretations of history, influence public opinion. Employing diverse methodologies and data types, the research aims to provide empirical and measurable insights into this phenomenon.
The first study provides a systematic review laying down the evolution and development of academic scholarship of the Martial Law period in the Philippines from 1972-2023. There exists no systematic effort to examine the prevailing scholarship on Martial Law, despite its compelling relevance. This study highlights the ‘voice of the experts’ in the field of Social Sciences (i.e., scholars, historians and political scientists), through their published documents, providing a portrayal of how experts, through their scientific and academic study, offer scientific argument and historical interpretation of this contested period in the country. Using VOSviewer network analysis, results revealed seven themes surrounding the existing literature delving on Martial Law in the Philippines. These are (1) remembering the Marcos regime, (2) technocracy in the Philippines, (3) historical revisionism in comparative perspective, (4) protests and insurgencies, (5) survival narratives, (6) peace and violence, and (7) the role of Imelda Marcos and the US. The systematic review conveys a generally critical stance towards this historical period of the country. However, there seems to be minimal scholarly publications and lack of consistent attention in disseminating scientific historical narratives of the Martial Law years, potentially leading to the limited exposure of Filipinos from scientific interpretations of this significant event.
While experts and scholars portray a more critical stance towards how Martial Law is depicted and taught in formal education, some influential media personalities (i.e., celebrities and influencers) hold powerful role in reshaping people’s perspectives on this contested historical event. Many claim that the recent presidential results favoring the son and namesake Marcos is largely due to the influence of the media personalities propagating disinformation, misinformation and fake news, thus the so called ‘historical revisionism’. Despite such a strong claim, these arguments lack empirical and quantifiable evidence. Therefore, Studies 2 and 3 center on the empirical aspect of the debate—focusing on testable claims through quantitative analysis of secondary data and primary survey data, respectively—as the core foundation of its investigation.
The second study provides empirical evidence of the dominance of celebrities by comparing Filipinos’ trust towards celebrity-dominated against expert-dominated institutions using data from the World Values Survey 7 (WVS 7). This study tests whether the general Filipino educational attainment predicts trust towards celebrity-dominated against expert-dominated institutions. Lastly, this study gauges the effectiveness of celebrities utilizing social media platforms by examining the viewers’ sentiments using Toni Gonzaga's YouTube video interviewing Bongbong Marcos. Using t-test, regression analysis, and text-mining analysis (i.e., word cloud, TF-IDF, and sentiment analysis), the study generally revealed the apparent influence that celebrities can hold over the Filipino population.
The third study seeks to further reinforce the claim of Study 2 proving the power and influence of celebrities in influencing individual attitudes specific towards the Martial Law. The third study explored how Source Credibility (SC) and Parasocial Interaction (PI) impact Filipino students' Behavioral Intention (BI) to engage in discussions about the Marcos and the Martial Law regime. Upon exposing students to one of the three conditions (celebrity, expert, and celebrity-expert), the study revealed compelling evidence that: (a) the celebrity was perceived as a credible source, and as a result predicts the respondents’ positive BI to engage with the celebrity but negatively towards the expert, and (b) PI positively influences BI across the three conditions. When dissecting the dimensions of SC, it is interesting to note that (c) despite the historical nature of the Martial law as the subject matter, the expertise dimension of SC did not significantly predict BI across all conditions. Lastly, when dissecting the dimensions of PI, (d) the ‘interest’ dimension appeared as a positive and significant predictor of the BI to engage with a source that has a celebrity and expert status and (e) ‘identification’ dimension appeared as a positive and significant predictor of BI to engage across the three conditions.
The outcomes of these studies collectively underscore a notable trend: the escalating reach of celebrity influence that now extends into domains traditionally reserved for academic experts. This shift highlights a growing impact wielded by celebrities transcending the realms where specialized knowledge and authority of experts were conventionally valued and prioritized. The precedence of trust in celebrities over experts among Filipinos raises concerns due to its potential consequences, primarily the increased susceptibility to misinformation and disinformation. Implications for the Social Studies education, policymakers and educators in the Philippines are further discussed.

Table of Contents
Dissertation Validation Letter In Chinese i
Dissertation Validation Letter In English ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract In Chinese iv
Abstract In English vi
Table Of Contents ix
List of Figures xii
List of Tables xiii
Definition of Terms xiv

CHAPTER 1 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RESEARCH 6
IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH 8
SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY OF THE RESEARCH 9

CHAPTER 2 12
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK12
1.Constructive-Development Theory12
2.Source Credibility Model13
3.Narrative Transportation Theory14
4.Parasocial Interaction/ Relationship Model16
ONTOLOGICAL AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL STANCE OF THE RESEARCHER21

CHAPTER 3 23
THE STUDY OF MARTIAL LAW IN THE PHILIPPINES: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND IMPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION23
ABSTRACT23
KEYWORDS23
INTRODUCTION24
LITERATURE REVIEW25
A. Historical revisionism and the educational legacies of authoritarian rule26
b.The scholarship of Martial Law in the Philippines: Review of critical debate29
METHODOLOGY31
RESULTS34
DISCUSSION47
CONCLUSION53
IMPLICATIONS54
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY56

CHAPTER 4 57
CELEBRITY CULTURE, LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND TRUST IN MEDIA INSTITUTIONS: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE PHILIPPINES57
ABSTRACT57
KEYWORDS57
INTRODUCTION58
LITERATURE REVIEW59
a.Confidence in the Media59
b.Educational Attainment59
c.Examining Celebrity Influence: The Case of Toni Gonzaga60
SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGY61
SUMMARY OF RESULTS65
CONCLUSIONS73
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTION76

CHAPTER 5 77
THE POWER OF CELEBRITIES IN SHAPING MARCOS AND THE MARTIAL LAW NARRATIVE IN HISTORY: A STUDY AMONG FILIPINO UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES77
ABSTRACT77
KEYWORDS77
INTRODUCTION78
LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES GENERATION81
1.Martial Law in the Philippines: Polar “Golden” views81
2.Congruity Theory vs. Elaboration Likelihood Model82
3.Source Credibility influences Behavioral Intention to engage in Martial Law discussions83
4. Parasocial Interaction influences Behavioral Intention to engage in Martial Law discussions85
5. Dissecting Source Credibility dimensions predictive power influencing Behavioral Intention to engage in Martial Law discussions86
6. Dissecting Parasocial Interaction dimensions predictive power influencing Behavioral Intention to engage in Martial Law discussions87
RESEARCH DESIGN, METHODS AND PROCEDURES89
RESULTS100
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION107
IMPLICATIONS IN EDUCATION111
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY113

CHAPTER 6 114
GENERAL RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS114
SUMMARY OF RESULTS114
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS117
GENERAL IMPLICATIONS120
FUTURE DIRECTIONS123
GENERAL LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY124

REFERENCES 125
APPENDICES147
APPENDIX A. CELEBRITY CULTURE, LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND TRUST IN MEDIA INSTITUTIONS: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE PHILIPPINES. PUBLISHED PAPER IN THE ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS.147
APPENDIX B: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE (STUDY 3)171
APPENDIX C. TESTING REGRESSION ASSUMPTIONS (STUDY 3)224

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