隨著技術的快速發展和廣泛應用，越來越多的人在社交媒體上拍攝和分享照片。因此，這一現象正吸引著眾多營銷專家和學術學者。儘管最近的研究調查了自戀作為發布自拍的預測因素，但缺乏關於自戀與品牌自拍行為不同向度之間關係的經驗證據，以及這種關係背後的中介因素。因此，本研究使用回歸和相關分析來檢驗自戀對品牌自拍行為的實證影響，以及這種關係的潛在中介一歸屬感。研究結果顯示，自戀與社交媒體上品牌自拍行為的所有向度都呈現正向相關。此外，歸屬感在自戀與品牌自拍行為之間具有仲介作用。本研究的結果有助於理解品牌自拍行為的預測因素，並做為未來研究的參考。

With the rapid development and widespread availability of technology, an increasing number of individuals are taking and sharing photos on social media. Thus, this phenomenon is attracting many marketing experts, and academic scholars. Although recent studies have investigated narcissism as predictor of posting selfies, there is a scarcity of empirical evidence linking narcissism to different dimensions of brand-selfie behaviors, and as well as the mediating mechanism underlying this relation. As a result, this study uses simple linear regression and correlation analysis to examine the empirical impacts of narcissism on brand-selfie behaviors, and a potential mediator of this relation – belongingness. The results indicated that narcissism is positively associated with all dimensions of brand-selfie behaviors on social media. In addition, belongingness mediates the link between narcissism and brand-selfie behaviors. Findings of this study adds to a better understanding of the predictors of brand-selfie behaviors and lay the foundation for the future research.

Table of Contents
Thesis Validation Letter i
Acknowledgement ii
摘要: iii
Abstract iv
Table of Contents v
Table of Figures vii
Table of Tables viii
Introduction 1
Scope of Study 3
Research Questions 4
Research Structure 5
Theoretical Background and Hypothesis Development 7
Theoretical Background 7
Selfie as a form of self-presentation on social media 7
Brand-selfie 9
Narcissism 12
Belongingness 14
Hypotheses Development and Model 15
Research Question and Hypotheses Development 15
Conceptual model 20
Methods 21
Participants 21
Measures 22
Procedure 24
Results 25
Validity and Reliability 25
Preliminary Analysis 26
Testing for Main Effect 28
Testing for Mediation Effect 29
Conclusions 30
Theoretical Implications 30
Practical Implication 31
Limitations and Future Research 31
References 33

Arpaci, I., Yalçın, S. B., Baloğlu, M., & Kesici, Ş. (2018). The moderating effect of gender in the relationship between narcissism and selfie-posting behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 71-74.
Barry, C. T., Sidoti, C. L., Briggs, S. M., Reiter, S. R., & Lindsey, R. A. (2017). Adolescent social media use and mental health from adolescent and parent perspectives. Journal of adolescence, 61, 1-11.
Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Need-to-belong theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 2, 121-140.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497.
Belk, R. W. (2013). Extended self in a digital world. Journal of consumer research, 40(3), 477-500.
Bergman, S. M., Fearrington, M. E., Davenport, S. W., & Bergman, J. Z. (2011). Millennials, narcissism, and social networking: What narcissists do on social networking sites and why. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 706-711.
Bogart, L. M., Benotsch, E. G., & Pavlovic, J. D. P. (2004). Feeling superior but threatened: The relation of narcissism to social comparison. Basic and applied social psychology, 26(1), 35-44.
Brumfield, B. (2013). Selfie named word of the year for 2013. CNN International. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/19/living/selfie-word-of-the-year/index.html
Buffardi, L. E., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Narcissism and social networking web sites. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(10), 1303-1314.
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality data?
Buss, D. M., & Chiodo, L. M. (1991). Narcissistic acts in everyday life. Journal of personality, 59(2), 179-215.
Cain, N. M., Pincus, A. L., & Ansell, E. B. (2008). Narcissism at the crossroads: Phenotypic description of pathological narcissism across clinical theory, social/personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis. Clinical psychology review, 28(4), 638-656.
Carnoy, J. (2014). 5 Brands Driving Sales Value through Selfies. Retrieved from https://www.pixlee.com/blog/5-brands-driving-sales-value-through-selfies/
Chen, S., English, T., & Peng, K. (2006). Self-verification and contextualized self-views. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(7), 930-942.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Looking-glass self. The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6, 126-128.
Davenport, S. W., Bergman, S. M., Bergman, J. Z., & Fearrington, M. E. (2014). Twitter versus Facebook: Exploring the role of narcissism in the motives and usage of different social media platforms. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 212-220.
Dhir, A., Pallesen, S., Torsheim, T., & Andreassen, C. S. (2016). Do age and gender differences exist in selfie-related behaviours? Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 549-555.
Ehrlén, V., & Villi, M. (2020). ‘I shared the joy’: sport-related social support and communality on Instagram. Visual Studies, 35(2-3), 260-272.
Ellison, N., Heino, R., & Gibbs, J. (2006). Managing impressions online: Self-presentation processes in the online dating environment. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 11(2), 415-441.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis: WW Norton & company, 154-159.
Fox, J., & Rooney, M. C. (2015). The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 161-165.
Frederick, C. M., & Zhang, T. (2019). Narcissism and Social Media Usage: Is There No Longer a Relationship? Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis, 16(1), 23.
große Deters, F., Mehl, M. R., & Eid, M. (2014). Narcissistic power poster? On the relationship between narcissism and status updating activity on Facebook. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 165-174.
Hair, J. F. (2009). Multivariate data analysis.
Halpern, D., Valenzuela, S., & Katz, J. E. (2016). “Selfie-ists” or “Narci-selfiers”?: A cross-lagged panel analysis of selfie taking and narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 97, 98-101.
Hartmann, J., Heitmann, M., Schamp, C., & Netzer, O. (2019). The power of brand selfies in consumer-generated brand imagery. Columbia Business School Research Paper Forthcoming.
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2013). Conditional process modeling: Using structural equation modeling to examine contingent causal processes. American Psychological Association, 219-266.
Heine, C. (2016). This Mobile App Pays You for Your Selfies While Giving Custom Data to Brands. Adweek.com. Retrieved from https://www.adweek.com/performance-marketing/mobile-app-pays-you-your-selfies-while-giving-custom-data-brands-171548/
Holtzman, N. S., Vazire, S., & Mehl, M. R. (2010). Sounds like a narcissist: Behavioral manifestations of narcissism in everyday life. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(4), 478-484.
Hossain, M., Kim, M., & Jahan, N. (2019). Can “liking” behavior lead to usage intention on Facebook? Uses and gratification theory perspective. Sustainability, 11(4), 1166.
Kabadayi, S., & Price, K. (2014). Consumer–brand engagement on Facebook: liking and commenting behaviors. Journal of research in interactive marketing, 8(3), 203-223.
Kedzior, R., Allen, D. E., & Schroeder, J. (2016). The selfie phenomenon–consumer identities in the social media marketplace. European Journal of Marketing, 50(9), 1767-1772.
Keep, M., Janssen, A., & Amon, K. (2019). Image Sharing on Social Networking Sites: Who, What, Why, and So What? In The Oxford Handbook of Cyberpsychology.
Kim, C., & Yang, S.-U. (2017). Like, comment, and share on Facebook: How each behavior differs from the other. Public Relations Review, 43(2), 441-449.
Kim, E., Lee, J.-A., Sung, Y., & Choi, S. M. (2016). Predicting selfie-posting behavior on social networking sites: An extension of theory of planned behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 116-123.
Kim, E., Sung, Y., & Kang, H. (2014). Brand followers’ retweeting behavior on Twitter: How brand relationships influence brand electronic word-of-mouth. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 18-25.
Kim, J. W., & Chock, T. M. (2017). Personality traits and psychological motivations predicting selfie posting behaviors on social networking sites. Telematics and Informatics, 34(5), 560-571.
Leckelt, M., Küfner, A. C., Nestler, S., & Back, M. D. (2015). Behavioral processes underlying the decline of narcissists’ popularity over time. Journal of personality and social psychology, 109(5), 856.
Lee, J.-A., & Sung, Y. (2016). Hide-and-seek: Narcissism and “selfie”-related behavior. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 19(5), 347-351.
Leung, L. (2013). Generational differences in content generation in social media: The roles of the gratifications sought and of narcissism. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 997-1006.
Lexico. (2021). Selfie Retrieved from https://www.lexico.com/definition/selfie
Li, E., Mukherjee, S., & Nguyen, T.-D. (2014). Just For Fun? Constructing Self Through Selfies. Association for Consumer Research, 42, 796-796.
Lin, H.-F. (2008). Determinants of successful virtual communities: Contributions from system characteristics and social factors. Information & Management, 45(8), 522-527.
Liu, X., & Foreman, J. (2019). Exploring the impact of brand selfie on brand attitude in the Twittersphere. International Journal of Internet Marketing and Advertising, 13(4), 321-337.
Martino, J. (2014). Scientists link selfies to narcissism, addiction, and mental illness. Collective Evolution. Retrieved from http://www.collectiveevolution.com/2014/04/07/scientistslinkselfies-to-narcissismaddiction-mental-illness.
McCain, J. L., Borg, Z. G., Rothenberg, A. H., Churillo, K. M., Weiler, P., & Campbell, W. K. (2016). Personality and selfies: Narcissism and the Dark Triad. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 126-133.
McCain, J. L., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Narcissism and social media use: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 7(3), 308.
Meeker, M. (2014). Internet Trend 2014. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/mary-meekers-2014-internet-presentation-2014-5#-1
Miller, J. D., Hoffman, B. J., Gaughan, E. T., Gentile, B., Maples, J., & Keith Campbell, W. (2011). Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: A nomological network analysis. Journal of personality, 79(5), 1013-1042.
Miller, J. D., Maples, J. L., Buffardi, L., Cai, H., Gentile, B., Kisbu-Sakarya, Y., . . . Sedikides, C. (2015). Narcissism and United States’ culture: The view from home and around the world. Journal of personality and social psychology, 109(6), 1068 - 1089.
Moon, J. H., Lee, E., Lee, J.-A., Choi, T. R., & Sung, Y. (2016). The role of narcissism in self-promotion on Instagram. Personality and Individual Differences, 101, 22-25.
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001a). Expanding the dynamic self-regulatory processing model of narcissism: Research directions for the future. Psychological inquiry, 12(4), 243-251.
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001b). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological inquiry, 12(4), 177-196.
Naaman, M., Boase, J., & Lai, C.-H. (2010). Is it really about me? Message content in social awareness streams. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2010 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work.
Nadkarni, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012). Why do people use Facebook? Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 243-249.
Paolacci, G., Chandler, J., & Ipeirotis, P. G. (2010). Running experiments on amazon mechanical turk. Judgment and Decision making, 5(5), 411-419.
PewResearchCenter. (2021). Mobile Fact Sheet. Retrieved from: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/
Pincus, A. L., Ansell, E. B., Pimentel, C. A., Cain, N. M., Wright, A. G., & Levy, K. N. (2009). Initial construction and validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological assessment, 21(3), 365.
Presi, C., Maehle, N., & Kleppe, I. A. (2016). Brand selfies: consumer experiences and marketplace conversations. European Journal of Marketing, 50(9), 1814-1834.
Rosenthal, S. A., & Pittinsky, T. L. (2006). Narcissistic leadership. The leadership quarterly, 17(6), 617-633.
Ryan, T., & Xenos, S. (2011). Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1658-1664.
Saenger, C., Thomas, V. L., & Johnson, J. W. (2013). Consumption‐focused self‐expression word of mouth: A new scale and its role in consumer research. Psychology & Marketing, 30(11), 959-970.
Shane-Simpson, C., Manago, A., Gaggi, N., & Gillespie-Lynch, K. (2018). Why do college students prefer Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? Site affordances, tensions between privacy and self-expression, and implications for social capital. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 276-288.
Shane-Simpson, C., Schwartz, A. M., Abi-Habib, R., Tohme, P., & Obeid, R. (2020). I love my selfie! An investigation of overt and covert narcissism to understand selfie-posting behaviors within three geographic communities. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 106-158.
Singh, S., Farley, S. D., & Donahue, J. J. (2018). Grandiosity on display: Social media behaviors and dimensions of narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 308-313.
Smock, A. D., Ellison, N. B., Lampe, C., & Wohn, D. Y. (2011). Facebook as a toolkit: A uses and gratification approach to unbundling feature use. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(6), 2322-2329.
Sorokowska, A., Oleszkiewicz, A., Frackowiak, T., Pisanski, K., Chmiel, A., & Sorokowski, P. (2016). Selfies and personality: Who posts self-portrait photographs? Personality and Individual Differences, 90, 119-123.
Statista. (2021). Social network users in selected countries in 2021 and 2025. Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/278341/number-of-social-network-users-in-selected-countries/
Strayhorn, T. L. (2012). Exploring the impact of Facebook and Myspace use on first-year students' sense of belonging and persistence decisions. Journal of College Student Development, 53(6), 783-796.
Sung, Y., Kim, E., & Choi, S. M. (2018). # Me and brands: understanding brand-selfie posters on social media. International Journal of Advertising, 37(1), 14-28.
Sung, Y., Lee, J.-A., Kim, E., & Choi, S. M. (2016). Why we post selfies: Understanding motivations for posting pictures of oneself. Personality and Individual Differences, 97, 260-265.
Swann, W. B. (1987). Identity negotiation: where two roads meet. Journal of personality and social psychology, 53(6), 1038–1051.
Tamir, D. I., & Mitchell, J. P. (2012). Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(21), 8038-8043.
Taylor, D. G., Strutton, D., & Thompson, K. (2012). Self-enhancement as a motivation for sharing online advertising. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 12(2), 13-28.
TodayHealth. (2014). Stop obsessing: Women spend 2 weeks a year on their appearance. Retrieved from: http://www.today.com/health/stop-obsessing-women-spend-2-weeks-year-their-appearance-today-2D12104866
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is there social capital in a social network site?: Facebook use and college students' life satisfaction, trust, and participation. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 14(4), 875-901.
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2011). Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks. Journal of adolescent health, 48(2), 121-127.
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. P. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents' well-being and social self-esteem. CyberPsychology & behavior, 9(5), 584-590.
Wallace, H. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). The performance of narcissists rises and falls with perceived opportunity for glory. Journal of personality and social psychology, 82(5), 819.
Wang, R., Yang, F., & Haigh, M. M. (2017). Let me take a selfie: Exploring the psychological effects of posting and viewing selfies and groupies on social media. Telematics and Informatics, 34(4), 274-283.
Weiser, E. B. (2015). # Me: Narcissism and its facets as predictors of selfie-posting frequency. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 477-481.
Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of personality and social psychology, 61(4), 590.
Wong, D., Amon, K. L., & Keep, M. (2019). Desire to belong affects Instagram behavior and perceived social support. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 22(7), 465-471.
YouGov. (2018). Selfies. Retrieved from: https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/miuhyfebpb/Results%20for%20YouGov%20Omnibus%20(Selfies)%20192%2017.8.2018.pdf
Zaromb, F. M., Liu, J. H., Páez, D., Hanke, K., Putnam, A. L., & Roediger III, H. L. (2018). We made history: Citizens of 35 countries overestimate their Nation's role in world history. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 7(4), 521-528.
Zhou, M., Cai, X., Liu, Q., & Fan, W. (2019). Examining continuance use on social network and micro-blogging sites: Different roles of self-image and peer influence. International Journal of Information Management, 47, 215-232.