近年來假新聞盛行，對於新聞媒體的傷害非常巨大，人們必須在真新聞與假新聞之間做區分，如何應對假新聞變的非常重要，而不同的人判斷假新聞的方式有所不同，使得台灣的新聞媒體生態變的愈加分裂。
本研究以2019年的台灣民眾作為研究對象，利用《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第三次》的調查樣本資料，以階層迴歸分析資料，針對暴露在假新聞風險中的閱聽人，考察假新聞的風險感知是否影響新聞媒體的可信度，以及新聞媒體的使用頻率，甚至是否出現選擇性接觸的情況。由於面對風險需要關注的是因應風險的能力，因此本研究也透過脆弱性的概念，輔以數位技巧探討假新聞造成的風險是否存在數位落差。結果發現，假新聞暴露與風險感知雖然會降低新聞媒體可信度、電視新聞使用，但也會增加網路、報紙新聞使用；數位技巧可以降低的假新聞風險危害為網路、報紙新聞使用，以及選擇性接觸，但不能降低的假新聞風險危害為新聞媒體可信度，以及電視新聞使用。

Recently, the societal influence of fake news is a big problem for the news media. Fake news is information that is false or misleading and looks like real news, so people must discriminate between fake news and real news. In addition, many people often regard information that does not conform to their own opinions as fake news, which makes society more divided.
Data analyzed in this study were collected by the research project of the Taiwan Communication Survey (TCS) in 2019. I examined the concepts of fake news exposure, and their risk perceptions (i.e., prevalence, severity, and susceptibility) in relation to fake news. I also aim to research whether they influence news media use and enhance selective exposure. The capacity to cope and adapt to the risk of fake news is important, so I examine whether the digital skills generate a digital divide in the risks of fake news.

論文審定書 i
誌謝 ii
摘要 iii
Abstract iv
目錄 v
圖次 viii
表次 ix
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景 1
第二節 研究動機 7
第二章 研究目的與問題 9
第三章 文獻回顧 10
第一節 假新聞暴露的風險 10
一、 假新聞的定義 10
二、 風險的定義 11
三、 風險感知的定義 11
四、 風險資訊搜尋與處理模型 13
五、 假新聞的影響 15
第二節 假新聞暴露和風險感知對新聞媒體可信度的危害 17
第三節 假新聞暴露的風險感知對新聞使用的影響 19
一、 新聞媒體使用 19
二、 增加選擇性接觸的風險 21
第四節 假新聞暴露風險的脆弱性 24
一、 脆弱性的定義 24
二、 數位落差的定義 25
三、 數位技巧的落差 26
第四章 研究方法 29
第一節 研究架構 29
第二節 臺灣傳播調查資料庫 30
第三節 調查樣本 31
第四節 衡量變數之題項 37
一、 假新聞的暴露與風險感知 37
二、 新聞媒體可信度 38
三、 新聞媒體使用 39
四、 選擇性接觸 41
五、 數位技巧 43
六、 人口變項 44
第五節 分析方法 46
第五章 資料分析與結果 47
第一節 樣本敘述性統計 47
一、 人口變項敘述性統計 47
二、 變數敘述性統計 49
三、 信效度分析 56
四、 相關性分析 58
第二節 研究問題與假說驗證 59
一、 假新聞暴露與風險感知對新聞媒體可信度的影響 60
二、 假新聞暴露與風險感知對新聞使用的影響 63
三、 假新聞暴露與風險感知是否具有數位落差 74
四、 新聞媒體可信度的中介效果 77
五、 數位技巧對新聞媒體可信度作為中介效果的調節 80
六、 假新聞暴露與風險感知對選擇性接觸的影響 82
七、 小結 86
第六章 討論與建議 90
第一節 研究結論 90
一、 新聞媒體可信度 90
二、 新聞媒體使用與選擇性接觸 91
三、 數位技巧 92
第二節 研究貢獻 95
一、 學術貢獻 95
二、 實務貢獻 96
第三節 研究限制與未來研究方向 97
參考文獻 99
一、 中文部分 99
二、 英文部分 102
附錄 111
附錄一：選擇性接觸有關的問卷題項 111
附錄二：選擇性接觸有關敘述性統計 116
附錄三：數位技巧相關敘述性統計（2000人） 117
附錄四：R程式語言 119

一、中文部分
王惟芬（譯）（2019）。後真相：真相已無關緊要，我們要如何分辨真假（原作者：Lee McIntyre）。臺北市：時報出版。
王榮輝（譯）（2019）。向下扎根！德國教育的公民思辨課7－「過濾氣泡、假新聞與說謊媒體──我們如何避免被操弄？」：有自覺使用媒體的第一步（原作者：Manfred Theisen）。臺北市：麥田出版。
台灣事實查核中心（2018）。【錯誤】媒體報導：日本關西機場因燕子颱風重創而關閉後，中國優先派巴士前往關西機場營救受困之中國旅客？【網站文章】。取自：https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/150
台灣事實查核中心（2022）。【假新聞年度大調查】【網站文章】。取自：https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/6953
沈郁吟（2017）。選擇性暴露悖論：既存態度、眼動與態度極化（碩士論文）。取自臺灣博碩士論文系統。（系統編號 105NCTU5376029）
林宗弘（2019）。數位貧窮與天災風險資訊來源：來自臺灣傳播調查的證據。新聞學研究，138，131-162。 doi: 10.30386/mcr.201901_(138).0004
林宗弘、蕭新煌、許耿銘（2018）。邁向世界風險社會？台灣民眾的社會資本, 風險感知與風險因應行為。調查研究-方法與應用，40，127-166。
林冠慧、張長義（2015）。脆弱性研究的演變與當前發展。地理學報，77，49-82。 doi: 10.6161/jgs.2015.77.03
林淑芳（2016）。台灣民眾網絡素養調查：網絡素養、網絡經驗及生活滿意度關係之綜合探討。傳播與社會學刊，37，25-56。
林照真（2020）。假新聞類型與媒體聚合：以2018年臺灣選舉為例。新聞學研究，142，111-153。 doi: 10.30386/mcr.202001_(142).0003
林聰吉、張一彬、黃妍甄（2020）。政治興趣、網路政治參與以及傳統政治參與。東吳政治學報，38，113-161。
施琮仁（2015）。不同媒體平台對公眾參與科學決策能力之影響：以奈米科技為例。新聞學研究，124，165-213。 doi: 10.30386/mcr.201507_(124).0005
徐美苓（2019）。風險感知、價值觀、議題傳播及空污防制行為意向。新聞學研究，138，25-73。 doi: 10.30386/mcr.201901_(138).0002
陳憶寧（2016）。臉書使用者的社會資本及政治參與。傳播與社會學刊，35，141-183。
陳憶寧、溫嘉禾、許悅（2022）。議題的力量：由大數據解析2020年台灣總統大選中的議題。傳播與社會學刊，59，13-45。 doi: 10.30180/cs.202201_(59).0003
陳敏生（2009）。防災社會經濟面弱勢族群的心理特性分析。行政院衛生署委託科技計畫研究成果報告（編號：DOH97– TD– H–113– 97011）。台北市：行政院衛生署。
張宜君、林宗弘（2012）。不平等的災難：921地震下的受災風險與社會階層化。人文及社會科學集刊，24，193-231。 doi: 10.6350/jssp.201206.0193
張卿卿、陶振超、杜素豪（2014）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第一期第三次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：NSC 100-2420-H-004-049-SS3）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2016）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第一期第四次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 103-2420-H-004-033-SS2）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2017）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第一期第五次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 103-2420-H-004-033-SS2）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2018）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第一次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 105-2420-H-004-035-SS3）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2019）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第二次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 105-2420-H-004-035-SS3）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2020）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第三次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 105-2420-H-004-035-SS3）。台北市：政治大學傳播學院。
張卿卿、陶振超（2021）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第四次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 108-2420-H-001-005-SS2）。台北市：中央研究院人文社會科學研究中心。
張卿卿、陶振超（2022）。《臺灣傳播調查資料庫第二期第五次調查計畫執行報告》。科技部之獨立專案計畫（編號：MOST 108-2420-H-001-005-SS2）。台北市：中央研究院人文社會科學研究中心。
張鐙文、莊文忠（2012）。數位時代媒介使用行為與政治知識成因之析探：網路與非網路使用族群之比較分析。競爭力評論，15，65-90。 doi: 10.30068/cr.201203.0003
曾淑芬、吳齊殷（2015）。數位參與和社會包容：過去與未來。資訊社會研究，29，1-26。 doi: 10.29843/jccis.201507_(29).0001
勞動部（2021）。基本工資審議委員會今(8)日會議結論，自111年1月1日起，每月基本工資調整至25,250元，每小時基本工資調整為168元，將陳報行政院核定後公告實施。【官方網站新聞稿】。取自https://www.mol.gov.tw/1607/1632/1633/38520/post
黃哲斌（2018）。一位外交官過世之後：假新聞一直來，我們可以怎麼辦？【新聞網站評論】。取自： https://opinion.cw.com.tw/blog/profile/51/article/7325
鄭陸霖、林鶴玲（2001）。社運在網際網路上的展現：台灣社會運動網站的聯網分析。台灣社會學，2，頁 55-96。 doi: 10.6676/ts.2001.2.55
劉正山（2009）。2008 年總統大選競選期間政黨支持者選擇性接觸媒體傾向的分析。選舉研究，16，51-70。
劉致昕、柯皓翔、許家瑜（2019）。【LINE群組的假訊息從哪來？跨國調查，追出內容農場「直銷」產業鏈】【網站文章】。取自：https://www.twreporter.org/a/information-warfare-business-disinformation-fake-news-behind-line-groups
瞿海源、劉長萱、畢恆達、楊國樞（2015）。社會及行為科學研究法：資料分析）。臺北市：臺灣東華。
羅世宏（2018）。關於「假新聞」的批判思考：老問題、新挑戰與可能的多重解方。資訊社會研究，35，51-85。 doi: 10.29843/jccis.201807_(35).0003
羅世宏（2022）。歐盟數位雙法最快2024上路！羅世宏：政府應與Google等超大平台協商，保障民眾數位權【新聞網站評論】。取自： https://futurecity.cw.com.tw/article/2714



二、英文部分
Adger, W. N. (2006). Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 268-281.
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211-236. doi: 10.1257/jep.31.2.211
Anspach, N. M., & Carlson, T. N. (2020). What to believe? Social media commentary and belief in misinformation. Political Behavior, 42(3), 697-718.
Büchi, M., Just, N., & Latzer, M. (2016). Modeling the second-level digital divide: A five-country study of social differences in Internet use. New Media & Society, 18(11), 2703-2722.
Babrow, A. S. (2001). Uncertainty, value, communication, and problematic integration. Journal of Communication, 51(3), 553-573.
Balod, H. S. S., & Hameleers, M. (2021). Fighting for truth? The role perceptions of Filipino journalists in an era of mis-and disinformation. Journalism, 22(9), 2368-2385.
Bardin, B., Perrissol, S., Facca, L., & Smeding, A. (2017). From risk perception to information selection… And not the other way round: Selective exposure mechanisms in the field of genetically modified organisms. Food Quality and Preference, 58, 10-17.
Barnett, J., & Breakwell, G. M. (2001). Risk perception and experience: Hazard personality profiles and individual differences. Risk Analysis, 21(1), 171-178.
Barnidge, M., Gunther, A. C., Kim, J., Hong, Y., Perryman, M., Tay, S. K., & Knisely, S. (2020). Politically motivated selective exposure and perceived media bias. Communication Research, 47(1), 82-103.
Barrantes, R. (2007). Analysis of ICT demand: what is digital poverty and how to measure it? Digital Poverty: Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives, 29-53.
Bastick, Z. (2021). Would you notice if fake news changed your behavior? An experiment on the unconscious effects of disinformation. Computers in Human Behavior, 116, 106633.
Brashers, D. E., Goldsmith, D. J., & Hsieh, E. (2002). Information seeking and avoiding in health contexts. Human communication research, 28(2), 258-271.
Bierhoff, H. W. (2002). Prosocial behaviour: Psychology Press.
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., McCaul, K. D., & Weinstein, N. D. (2007). Meta-analysis of the relationship between risk perception and health behavior: the example of vaccination. Health psychology, 26(2), 136.
Brewer, N. T., Weinstein, N. D., Cuite, C. L., & Herrington, J. E. (2004). Risk perceptions and their relation to risk behavior. Annals of behavioral medicine, 27(2), 125-130.
Brooks, N. (2003). Vulnerability, risk and adaptation: A conceptual framework. Tyndall Centre for climate change research working paper, 38(38), 1-16.
Chaffee, S. H., & Roser, C. (1986). Involvement and the consistency of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Communication Research, 13(3), 373-399.
Chang, C. (2021). Fake News: Audience Perceptions and Concerted Coping Strategies. Digital Journalism, 9(5), 636-659.
Cheng, Y., & Chen, Z. F. (2020). Encountering misinformation online: antecedents of trust and distrust and their impact on the intensity of Facebook use. Online Information Review.
Chiu, Y.-C., & Li, F.-Y. (2022). Effects of the digital divide on the prevention of food risk in Taiwan. Health Promotion International, 37(2), daab125.
Choi, J., & Lee, J. K. (2021). Confusing Effects of Fake News on Clarity of Political Information in the Social Media Environment. Journalism Practice, 1-19.
Cornia, A., Sehl, A., Levy, D. A., & Nielsen, R. K. (2018). Private sector news, social media distribution, and algorithm change.
Clare, L., & Weninger, B. (2010). Social and biophysical vulnerability of prehistoric societies to Rapid Climate Change. Documenta Praehistorica, 37, 283-292.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.
Cutter, S. L. (1996). Vulnerability to environmental hazards. Progress in human geography, 20(4), 529-539.
Cutter, S. L., Boruff, B. J., & Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social science quarterly, 84(2), 242-261.
Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., . . . Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 113(3), 554-559.
DiMaggio, P., & Bonikowski, B. (2008). Make money surfing the web? The impact of Internet use on the earnings of US workers. American Sociological Review, 73(2), 227-250.
Dolan, R. J. (2002). Emotion, cognition, and behavior. Science, 298(5596), 1191-1194.
Duffy, A., Tandoc, E., & Ling, R. (2020). Too good to be true, too good not to share: the social utility of fake news. Information, Communication & Society, 23(13), 1965-1979.
Edwards, K., & Smith, E. E. (1996). A disconfirmation bias in the evaluation of arguments. Journal of personality and social psychology, 71(1), 5.
Egelhofer, J. L., & Lecheler, S. (2019). Fake news as a two-dimensional phenomenon: A framework and research agenda. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43(2), 97-116.
El-Toukhy, S. (2015). Parsing susceptibility and severity dimensions of health risk perceptions. Journal of health communication, 20(5), 499-511.
Füssel, H.-M. (2007). Vulnerability: A generally applicable conceptual framework for climate change research. Global Environmental Change, 17(2), 155-167.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2): Stanford university press.
Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T. F., & Dahe, Q. (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change: Cambridge University Press.
Fletcher, R., & Park, S. (2017). The impact of trust in the news media on online news consumption and participation. Digital Journalism, 5(10), 1281-1299.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18(1), 39-50.
Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006). Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious? Consciousness and cognition, 15(3), 485-499.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological review, 102(1), 4.
Griffin, R. J., Dunwoody, S., & Neuwirth, K. (1999). Proposed model of the relationship of risk information seeking and processing to the development of preventive behaviors. Environmental research, 80(2), S230-S245.
Griffin, R. J., Neuwirth, K., Dunwoody, S., & Giese, J. (2004). Information sufficiency and risk communication. Media psychology, 6(1), 23-61.
Griffin, R. J., Powell, M., Dunwoody, S., Neuwirth, K., Clark, D., & Novotny, V. (2004). Testing the robustness of a risk information processing model. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and mass Communication, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Griffin, R. J., Yang, Z., Ter Huurne, E., Boerner, F., Ortiz, S., & Dunwoody, S. (2008). After the flood: Anger, attribution, and the seeking of information. Science Communication, 29(3), 285-315.
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign. European Research Council, 9(3), 4.
Ha, L., Andreu Perez, L., & Ray, R. (2021). Mapping recent development in scholarship on fake news and misinformation, 2008 to 2017: Disciplinary contribution, topics, and impact. American behavioral scientist, 65(2), 290-315.
Hair, J., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., & Black, W. (1998). Multivariate data analysis, 5th edPrentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hameleers, M., Brosius, A., & de Vreese, C. H. (2022). Whom to trust? Media exposure patterns of citizens with perceptions of misinformation and disinformation related to the news media. European Journal of Communication, 02673231211072667.
Hargittai, E. (2001). Second-level digital divide: Mapping differences in people's online skills. arXiv preprint cs/0109068.
Hart, W., Albarracín, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009). Feeling validated versus being correct: a meta-analysis of selective exposure to information. Psychological bulletin, 135(4), 555.
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach: Guilford publications.
Huang, C.-C., Wang, Y.-M., Wu, T.-W., & Wang, P.-A. (2013). An empirical analysis of the antecedents and performance consequences of using the moodle platform. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 3(2), 217.
Hwang, Y., & Jeong, S.-H. (2020). A channel-specific analysis of the risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model: The role of relevant channel beliefs and perceived information gathering capacity. Science Communication, 42(3), 279-312.
Isenberg, D. J. (1986). Group polarization: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 50(6), 1141.
Joakim, E. P., Mortsch, L., & Oulahen, G. (2015). Using vulnerability and resilience concepts to advance climate change adaptation. Environmental Hazards, 14(2), 137-155.
Jones-Jang, S. M., Kim, D. H., & Kenski, K. (2021). Perceptions of mis-or disinformation exposure predict political cynicism: Evidence from a two-wave survey during the 2018 US midterm elections. New Media & Society, 23(10), 3105-3125.
Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2021). Does media literacy help identification of fake news? Information literacy helps, but other literacies don’t. American behavioral scientist, 65(2), 371-388.
Joseph, G., Burke, N. J., Tuason, N., Barker, J. C., & Pasick, R. J. (2009). Perceived susceptibility to illness and perceived benefits of preventive care: An exploration of behavioral theory constructs in a transcultural context. Health Education & Behavior, 36(5_suppl), 71S-90S.
Kim, Y. (2015). Does disagreement mitigate polarization? How selective exposure and disagreement affect political polarization. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 92(4), 915-937.
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Johnson, B. K., & Westerwick, A. (2015). Confirmation bias in online searches: Impacts of selective exposure before an election on political attitude strength and shifts. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(2), 171-187.
Kosicki, G. M., & McLeod, J. M. (1990). Learning from political news: Effects of media images and information-processing strategies. Mass communication and political information processing, 69-83.
Kunst-Wilson, W. R., & Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science, 207(4430), 557-558.
Lai, C. H., Chib, A., & Ling, R. (2018). Digital disparities and vulnerability: mobile phone use, information behaviour, and disaster preparedness in Southeast Asia. Disasters, 42(4), 734-760.
Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., . . . Rothschild, D. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096.
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of personality and social psychology, 37(11), 2098.
Mavridis, G. (2018). Fake news and social media: How Greek users identify and curb misinformation online: Malmö universitet/Kultur och samhälle.
McCarthy, J. J., Canziani, O. F., Leary, N. A., Dokken, D. J., & White, K. S. (2001). Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Vol. 2): Cambridge University Press.
Muscanell, N. L., & Guadagno, R. E. (2012). Make new friends or keep the old: Gender and personality differences in social networking use. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(1), 107-112.
Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Schulz, A., Andi, S., Robertson, C. T., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). Reuters institute digital news report 2021. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
Nielsen, R. K., & Graves, L. (2017). " News you don't believe": Audience perspectives on fake news.
Niu, C., Jiang, Z., Liu, H., Yang, K., Song, X., & Li, Z. (2022). The influence of media consumption on public risk perception: a meta-analysis. Journal of Risk Research, 25(1), 21-47.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric Theory 2nd edition (New York: McGraw).
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303-330.
Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E., & Wilson, C. (2020). Misinformation in action: Fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review.
Oxford Languages (2016). Re: Word of the Year 2016 [web page ]. Retrieved from https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/
Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of experimental psychology: general, 147(12), 1865.
Rimal, R. N. (2001). Perceived risk and self‐efficacy as motivators: Understanding individuals' long‐term use of health information. Journal of Communication, 51(4), 633-654.
Rimal, R. N., Flora, J. A., & Schooler, C. (1999). Achieving improvements in overall health orientation: Effects of campaign exposure, information seeking, and health media use. Communication Research, 26(3), 322-348.
Roberto, A. J., & Goodall, C. E. (2009). Using the extended parallel process model to explain physicians' decisions to test their patients for kidney disease. Journal of health communication, 14(4), 400-412.
Rochlin, N. (2017). Fake news: belief in post-truth. Library hi tech.
Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change1. The journal of psychology, 91(1), 93-114.
Ross, A. S., & Rivers, D. J. (2018). Discursive deflection: Accusation of “fake news” and the spread of mis-and disinformation in the tweets of President Trump. Social Media+ Society, 4(2), 2056305118776010.
So, J., Kuang, K., & Cho, H. (2016). Reexamining fear appeal models from cognitive appraisal theory and functional emotion theory perspectives. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 120-144.
So, J., Kuang, K., & Cho, H. (2019). Information seeking upon exposure to risk messages: Predictors, outcomes, and mediating roles of health information seeking. Communication Research, 46(5), 663-687.
Stroud, N. J. (2010). Polarization and partisan selective exposure. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 556-576.
Stroud, N. J. (2017). Selective exposure theories The Oxford handbook of political communication.
Stroud, N. J., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Perceptions of cable news credibility. Mass Communication and Society, 16(1), 67-88.
Stubenvoll, M., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2021). Media trust under threat: Antecedents and consequences of misinformation perceptions on social media. International Journal of Communication, 15, 22.
Tandoc Jr, E. C. (2019). The facts of fake news: A research review. Sociology Compass, 13(9), e12724.
Tandoc Jr, E. C., Jenkins, J., & Craft, S. (2019). Fake news as a critical incident in journalism. Journalism Practice, 13(6), 673-689.
Tandoc Jr, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news” A typology of scholarly definitions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137-153.
Tandoc Jr, E. C., Ling, R., Westlund, O., Duffy, A., Goh, D., & Zheng Wei, L. (2018). Audiences’ acts of authentication in the age of fake news: A conceptual framework. New Media & Society, 20(8), 2745-2763.
ter Huurne, E. F., Griffin, R. J., & Gutteling, J. M. (2009). Risk information seeking among US and Dutch residents: An application of the model of risk information seeking and processing. Science Communication, 31(2), 215-237.
Thompson, S. (2006). Emotion, Politics and Society: Springer.
Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political communication, 33(3), 460-480.
Tsfati, Y., & Cappella, J. N. (2003). Do people watch what they do not trust? Exploring the association between news media skepticism and exposure. Communication Research, 30(5), 504-529.
Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Bartels, J. M. (2007). Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 92(1), 56.
Van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008.
Van Der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Roozenbeek, J. (2020). You are fake news: political bias in perceptions of fake news. Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 460-470.
Van Deursen, A. J., & Helsper, E. J. (2015). The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online? Communication and information technologies annual: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Van Deursen, A. J., & Van Dijk, J. A. (2014). The digital divide shifts to differences in usage. New Media & Society, 16(3), 507-526.
Van Dijk, J., & Hacker, K. (2003). The digital divide as a complex and dynamic phenomenon. The information society, 19(4), 315-326.
Van Dijk, J. A. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics, 34(4-5), 221-235.
Van Duyn, E., & Collier, J. (2019). Priming and fake news: The effects of elite discourse on evaluations of news media. Mass Communication and Society, 22(1), 29-48.
Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2018). I do not believe you: How providing a source corrects health misperceptions across social media platforms. Information, Communication & Society, 21(10), 1337-1353.
Vraga, E. K., & Tully, M. (2020). Who is exposed to news? It depends on how you measure: Examining self-reported versus behavioral news exposure measures. Social Science Computer Review, 38(5), 550-566.
Wagner, M. C., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2019). The reception of fake news: The interpretations and practices that shape the consumption of perceived misinformation. Digital Journalism, 7(7), 870-885.
Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2019). Emotions, media and politics: John Wiley & Sons.
Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policymaking: Council of Europe Strasbourg.
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communications Monographs, 59(4), 329-349.
Wilner, T., Wallace, R., Lacasa-Mas, I., & Goldstein, E. (2021). The Tragedy of Errors: Political Ideology, Perceived Journalistic Quality, and Media Trust. Journalism Practice, 1-22.
Yang, Z. J., Aloe, A. M., & Feeley, T. H. (2014). Risk information seeking and processing model: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 64(1), 20-41.
Yang, Z. J., & Kahlor, L. (2013). What, me worry? The role of affect in information seeking and avoidance. Science Communication, 35(2), 189-212.
Yang, Z. J., McComas, K. A., Gay, G., Leonard, J. P., Dannenberg, A. J., & Dillon, H. (2011). Information seeking related to clinical trial enrollment. Communication Research, 38(6), 856-882.
Yu, L. (2006). Understanding information inequality: Making sense of the literature of the information and digital divides. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 38(4), 229-252.