在當今全球化、緊密相連的世界中，文化智商 (cultural intelligence) 變得越來越重要。教育和國際經驗是發展文化智商的兩個主要基礎。本論文旨在於分析這兩個因素如何影響文化智商的發展，並運用了定性研究方法來補足現有文獻多為定量方法的研究缺口。研究中使用半結構性訪談以獲得實證數據，以及文化智商量表 (Cultural Intelligence Scale，CQS) 問卷的定量數據作為輔助資料。研究發現參與者的教育背景決定了個人整體的文化智商。較多的學校教育能提升對文化相關議題的認識和知識，而主要原因為學前教育缺乏跨文化教育的部份。國際經驗亦然是文化智商的重要貢獻者，說明著較豐富的國際經驗會正向影響文化智商水平。一項較特殊的研究發現是，定性研究方法與 CQS 問卷的調查結果部份矛盾。這能歸因於參與者對文化差異複雜性的意識較高時，反而導致其在自我評估中更加謙虛保守。總體而言，研究發現教育和國際經驗的結合是發展 文化智商最有效的方法，前者為使能者而後者為推動者。本論文研究結果的涵義與學前教育中文化教育的缺失有關。隨著文化智商變得逐日重要，監管機構應採取行動將其盡早納入教育內容。

Cultural intelligence (CQ) is becoming increasingly important in today’s interconnected, globalized world. Education and international experience are the two main foundations in developing CQ. This thesis aims to analyze how these two aspects affect the development of CQ. A qualitative research methodology was applied to fill the research gap in literature, where mostly quantitative approaches are used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain empirical data, supplemented with quantitative data from the cultural intelligence scale (CQS) questionnaire. The education of participants was found to dictate their overall CQ. More schooling meant higher awareness and knowledge about culture-related issues, with the lack of cross-cultural education in pre-university schooling being the main reason thereof. International experience was also found to be a major contributor to CQ, showing that more international experience caused higher CQ. Remarkably, the qualitative findings partially contradicted the results from the CQS survey. This was attributed to an increased awareness of the complexity of cultural differences resulting in a humbler self-assessment. Overall, a combination of education and international experience was found to be the most effective in developing CQ, with the former being the enabler and the latter the driver. Implications of this thesis’ findings are related to the identified lack of cultural education in pre-university schooling. With CQ becoming increasingly important, including it in education earlier on is a necessary step to take for regulators.

CONTENTS
THESIS VALIDATION LETTER i
DEDICATION ii
摘要 iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background & Problem Definition 1
1.2 Research Question 2
1.3 Research Aim 3
1.4 Significance & Research Gap 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 Cultural Intelligence (CQ) 4
Measuring CQ – the Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS) 5
(Inter)Cultural Sensitivity 6
Scope and Usage of CQ and Cultural Sensitivity 7
2.2 Education and CQ 8
Scope and comparability of “Education” 8
Specific Cultural Education 8
International Business Curriculum 10
Language Proficiency 10
2.3 International Experience and CQ 11
Inconsistencies in Literature 13
Quantifying International Experience 14
2.4 Education, International Experience, and CQ’s Four Dimensions 14
2.5 Desirability and Benefits of Cultural Intelligence 15
Professional Performance 15
Student Performance 18
General Benefits 18
2.6 The Dark Side of CQ 19
2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review 19
3. METHODOLOGY 20
3.1 Qualitative Research Approach 20
3.2 Selection of Study Participants 21
3.3 Semi-Structured Interviews 22
3.4 Data Analysis – Deductive Coding 24
3.5 Quantitative Data Supplementation – CQS 25
4. FINDINGS 28
4.1 Quantitative Data – CQS 28
4.2 Qualitative Data Analysis – Coding 28
4.3 Education 29
4.4 International Experience 30
4.5 Developing CQ – Education vs. International Experience 33
5. DISCUSSION 34
5.1 Education 34
5.2 International Experience 36
5.3 Other aspects 37
6. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 40
7. CONCLUSION 41
REFERENCES 43
APPENDIX 50
Appendix A: Interview guide used for semi-structured interviews 50
Appendix B: Result set of the CQS survey among the study participants 52
Appendix C: 7-step process of qualitative research (Mayring, 2014, p. 15) 53
Appendix D: Schools, definitions, and dimensions of cultural intelligence 54
Appendix E: Interview Transcripts 55
Interview #1 55
Interview #2 60
Interview #3 65
Interview #4 72

Adams, W. C. (2015). Conducting Semi-Structured Interviews. In Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation (pp. 492–505). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch19
Alshaibani, E., & Bakir, A. (2017). A reading in cross-cultural service encounter: Exploring the relationship between cultural intelligence, employee performance and service quality. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 17(3), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358416651474
Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. (2015). Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, and Applications. Routledge.
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., & Ng, K. Y. (2004). The measurement of cultural intelligence. Academy of Management Meetings Symposium on Cultural Intelligence in the 21st Century.
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x
Azungah, T. (2018). Qualitative research: deductive and inductive approaches to data analysis. Qualitative Research Journal, 18(4), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-D-18-00035
Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2019). Business Research Methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Bücker, J. J. L. E., Furrer, O., Poutsma, E., & Buyens, D. (2014). The impact of cultural intelligence on communication effectiveness, job satisfaction and anxiety for Chinese host country managers working for foreign multinationals. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(14), 2068–2087. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.870293
Chao, M. M., Takeuchi, R., & Farh, J.-L. (2017). Enhancing Cultural Intelligence: The Roles of Implicit Culture Beliefs and Adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 70(1), 257–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12142
Chen, A. S.-Y., Lin, G., & Yang, H. (2021). Staying connected: Effects of social connectedness, cultural intelligence, and socioeconomic status on overseas students’ life satisfaction. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 83, 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.06.002
Chen, A. S.-Y., & Lin, Y.-C. (2019). Speak to your heart: The joint moderating effects of language proficiencies on cultural intelligence and expatriates’ work performance. Chiao Da Management Review, 39(1), 119–154.
Chen, G.-M., & Starosta, W. J. (1998). Foundations of Intercultural Communication. Allyn & Bacon.
Chen, G.-M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale.
Cheung, R. Y. M., Jiang, D., Yum, Y. N., & Bhowmik, M. K. (2022). Intercultural sensitivity and prosocial behavior towards South Asians in Hong Kong: Mediating mechanisms of warmth and stigma. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 86, 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.11.002
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Crowne, K. A. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), 391–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2008.03.010
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. (1996). Intercultural interactions: A practical guide. SAGE Publications.
Dalai Lama. (2013). Dalai Lama - Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/DalaiLama/posts/in-todays-interconnected-and-globalized-world-it-is-now-commonplace-for-people-o/10151394673532616/
Davidson, J. M. (2020). Becoming the Next Generation of Global Leaders: Prior Experiences, Outside of International Travel, that may Contribute to Higher Levels of Cultural Intelligence in Young People. Pepperdine University.
Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press.
Eisenberg, J., Lee, H.-J., Brück, F., Brenner, B., Claes, M.-T., Mironski, J., & Bell, R. (2013). Can Business Schools Make Students Culturally Competent? Effects of Cross-Cultural Management Courses on Cultural Intelligence. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(4), 603–621. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2012.0022
Engle, R. L., & Crowne, K. A. (2014). The impact of international experience on cultural intelligence: an application of contact theory in a structured short-term programme. Human Resource Development International, 17(1), 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2013.856206
Fakhreldin, H., Youssef, N., & Anis, M. (2021). Cross-Cultural Management Education: Core for Business Students in the 21 st Century. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 32(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975930.2021.1960242
Foronda, C. L. (2008). A Concept Analysis of Cultural Sensitivity. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 19(3), 207–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659608317093
Genkova, P., & Kruse, L. (2020). Do stays abroad increase intercultural and general competences, affecting employability? Leadership, Education, Personality: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(2), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1365/s42681-020-00014-1
Göl, İ., & Erkin, Ö. (2019). Association between cultural intelligence and cultural sensitivity in nursing students: A cross-sectional descriptive study. Collegian, 26(4), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2018.12.007
Guang, X., & Charoensukmongkol, P. (2022). The effects of cultural intelligence on leadership performance among Chinese expatriates working in Thailand. Asian Business & Management, 21(1), 106–128. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00112-4
Guangcun, Z. (2018). Literature review on intercultural sensitivity. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, 17(2).
Guénier, A. D. W. (2020). A Multimodal Course Design for Intercultural Business Communication. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 31(3), 214–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975930.2020.1831422
Huff, K. C. (2013). Language, cultural intelligence and expatriate success. Management Research Review, 36(6), 596–612. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409171311325750
Imai, L., & Gelfand, M. J. (2010). The culturally intelligent negotiator: The impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on negotiation sequences and outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 112(2), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.02.001
Iskhakova, M., Bradly, A., Whiting, B., & Lu, V. N. (2022). Cultural intelligence development during short-term study abroad programmes: the role of cultural distance and prior international experience. Studies in Higher Education, 47(8), 1694–1711. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2021.1957811
Iskhakova, M., & Ott, D. L. (2020). Working in culturally diverse teams. Journal of International Education in Business, 13(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIEB-11-2019-0052
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience As The Source Of Learning And Development. Prentice-Hall.
Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Pearson Education.
Koo Moon, H., Kwon Choi, B., & Shik Jung, J. (2012). Previous international experience, cross-cultural training, and expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment: Effects of cultural intelligence and goal orientation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(3), 285–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21131
Lee, L.-Y., & Sukoco, B. M. (2010). The effects of cultural intelligence on expatriate performance: the moderating effects of international experience. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(7), 963–981. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585191003783397
Li, M., Mobley, W. H., & Kelly, A. (2013). When Do Global Leaders Learn Best to Develop Cultural Intelligence? An Investigation of the Moderating Role of Experiential Learning Style. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(1), 32–50. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2011.0014
Liou, R.-S., Nisar, S., Lee, K., Dixon, D., & Pennington, J. (2021). Unpacking Cultural Intelligence: Cultivating Ethnorelativism in International Business Education. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 32(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975930.2021.1960244
Lorenz, M. P., Ramsey, J. R., Andzulis, J. M., & Franke, G. R. (2020). The Dark Side of Cultural Intelligence: Exploring Its Impact on Opportunism, Ethical Relativism, and Customer Relationship Performance. Business Ethics Quarterly, 30(4), 552–590. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2020.2
MacNab, B. R. (2012). An Experiential Approach to Cultural Intelligence Education. Journal of Management Education, 36(1), 66–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562911412587
Magnusson, P., Westjohn, S. A., Semenov, A. V, Randrianasolo, A. A., & Zdravkovic, S. (2013). The role of cultural intelligence in marketing adaptation and export performance. Journal of International Marketing, 21(4), 44–61.
Mayring, P. (2014). Qualitative content analysis: Theoretical foundation, basic procedures and software solution. In Forum Qualitative Social Research. https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/39517/ssoar-2014-mayring-Qualitative_content_analysis_theoretical_foundation.pdf
McKay, S., Lannegrand, L., Skues, J., & Wise, L. (2022). International experience and cultural intelligence development: A longitudinal assessment of Australian and French exchange students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 91, 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.08.009
Michailova, S., & Ott, D. L. (2018). Linking international experience and cultural intelligence development. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 6(1), 59–78. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-07-2017-0028
Nath, S., & Chutia, R. (2021). Cultural Intelligence as a Correlate of Academic Performance among the students of Masters in Library and Information Science. Library Philosophy & Practice.
Naushad, S., & Majid, A. (2020). Effects of Cultural Intelligence on Job Performance among Expatriates in Pakistan. Journal of Managerial Sciences, 14.
Ng, K. Y., Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (2009). From Experience to Experiential Learning: Cultural Intelligence as a Learning Capability for Global Leader Development. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8(4), 511–526. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.8.4.zqr511
Ott, D. L., & Iskhakova, M. (2019). The meaning of international experience for the development of cultural intelligence. Critical Perspectives on International Business, 15(4), 390–407. https://doi.org/10.1108/cpoib-05-2019-0036
Ott, D. L., & Michailova, S. (2017). Does exposure to host country language during international experiences influence the development of cultural intelligence? European J. of International Management, 11(6), 733. https://doi.org/10.1504/EJIM.2017.087569
Ott, D. L., & Michailova, S. (2018). Cultural Intelligence: A Review and New Research Avenues. International Journal of Management Reviews, 20(1), 99–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12118
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Participant #1. (2022). Interview #1.
Participant #2. (2022). Interview #2.
Participant #3. (2022). Interview #3.
Participant #4. (2022). Interview #4.
Putranto, N. A. R., Nuraeni, S., Gustomo, A., & Ghazali, A. (2018). The relationship between cultural intelligence, emotional intelligence, and student performance. International Journal of Business, 23(1), 17–25.
Ramis, M., & Krastina, L. (2010). Cultural intelligence in the school. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 15(2), 239–252.
Ramsey, J. R., & Lorenz, M. P. (2016). Exploring the Impact of Cross-Cultural Management Education on Cultural Intelligence, Student Satisfaction, and Commitment. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(1), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2014.0124
Rockstuhl, T., Seiler, S., Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Annen, H. (2011). Beyond General Intelligence (IQ) and Emotional Intelligence (EQ): The Role of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) on Cross-Border Leadership Effectiveness in a Globalized World. Journal of Social Issues, 67(4), 825–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01730.x
Snodgrass, L. L., Hass, M., & Ghahremani, M. (2021). Developing cultural intelligence: Experiential interactions in an international internship program. Journal of Global Education and Research, 5(2), 165–174.
Soldatova, G., & Geer, M. (2013). “Glocal” Identity, Cultural Intelligence and Language Fluency. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 86, 469–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.599
Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is Intelligence? Contemporary Viewpoints on Its Nature and Definition. Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Tay, C., Westman, M., & Chia, A. (2008). Antecedents and conse- quences of cultural intelligence among short-term business travellers. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applica- tions (pp. 126–144). M. E. Sharpe.
Thomas, D. C., & Inkson, K. (2004). Cultural Intelligence: People Skills for Global Business. Berrett-Koehler.
Tsay, C. H. H., & Liou, R. S. (2016). Does international experience count in the cross-cultural management course effectiveness? International Journal of Services and Standards, 11(4), 339. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSS.2016.082424
Unknown. (2016). 19 Insightful Quotes About Culture. Textappeal. https://textappeal.com/cultureshocks/insightful-quotes-about-culture/
Valentine, S. R., & Bateman, C. R. (2011). The Impact of Ethical Ideologies, Moral Intensity, and Social Context on Sales-Based Ethical Reasoning. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(1), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0807-z
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M. L., & Koh, C. (2012). Sub-Dimensions of the Four Factor Model of Cultural Intelligence: Expanding the Conceptualization and Measurement of Cultural Intelligence. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(4), 295–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00429.x
Wen, C. I. (2019). Factors Affecting Students’ Subjective Well-being: The Relationship between Religion, Cultural Intelligence, Personality Traits and Subjective Well-being (SWB). GATR Journal of Management and Marketing Review, 4(4), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.35609/jmmr.2019.4.4(2)
Zhao, S., Liu, Y., & Zhou, L. (2020). How does a boundaryless mindset enhance expatriate job performance? The mediating role of proactive resource acquisition tactics and the moderating role of behavioural cultural intelligence. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 31(10), 1333–1357. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1253033