本研究探討台灣工具性/表達性特徵與工作和家庭衝突之間的複雜關係。透過訪問8名育有七歲以下幼童,具有高工具性特徵,以及/或者具有低表達性特徵的職場女性職家衝突經歷，了解(1) 具有低表達性特徵女性看待工作和家庭的角度。並且透過分析她們扮演多重角色時的內心掙扎與決策過程，(2)找出非符合性別角色期待女性經歷更高職家衝突的可能原因。研究結果突顯了這些女性時常被侷限在自我系統上解決結構性造成的工作與家庭衝突問題。她們常常在追求職業成就和角色責任(特別是母職責任)之間左右為難。這些母親時常在自責與他責下,被迫地在職業上做出取捨，犧牲自我實現的機會。研究認為此困境乃社會變遷與結構下的成果,將衝突方法提升到家庭,勞動市場和社會福利層面,才能真正緩解此女性族群之困境。藉由實施兩性平等的家庭友善措施，企業可以吸引多元人才，提高生產力，與工作滿意度，打造勞工與雇主的雙贏局面。

This research examines the relationship between instrumental/expressive traits and work and family conflicts in Taiwan, a collectivistic society experiencing shifts towards greater gender-role egalitarianism. This study explores the experiences of work and family conflict with eight career females who have young children, offering insights into how low expressive females perceive their work and family roles, as well as the internal struggles and decision-making processes when females with low expressive and/or high instrumental traits experiencing work and family conflicts. Findings highlight the emotional complexities these females face, often torn between pursuing career fulfillment and feeling guilty over perceived failure in maternal roles. As society's expectations prioritize maternal duties, these females sometimes make sacrifices in their career progression, thereby curbing their self-actualization and economic growth. This study posits that the dilemmas are a result of societal changes and structures. To truly alleviate the predicaments, the approach to conflict resolution needs to be elevated to the levels of family, labor market, and social welfare. By implementing family-friendly measures equitably, companies can attract talents, boost productivity, and increase job satisfaction, thereby creating a win-win situation for both employees and employers.

Table of Contents
Thesis Validation Letter i
Acknowledgements ii
中文摘要 iii
Abstract iv
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review 4
2.1 Gender, Gender Role Orientation theory and Work and Family Conflict 4
2.1.1 Work and Family Conflict 4
2.1.2 Gender Role and Gender Role Orientation 5
2.1.3 Gender Role Orientation and Work-family Conflict 7
2.2 Taiwanese Culture, Social Transformation and The Changing Gender Roles 9
2.2.1 Culture Dimension Theory: How Taiwanese Culture Influence Work and Family Conflict 9
2.2.2 Social Transformation and Gender Role Attitude 10
2.2.3 Traditional Gender Role Demand still Influences 13
2.3 Research Questions 14
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 18
3.1 Rationale for the Methodology 18
3.2 Choice of Method 19
3.3 Sampling Strategy 22
3.4 Organizing and Conducting the Interviews 24
3.5 Data Analysis 26
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion 27
4.1 Introduction 27
4.2 Participants 27
4.3 Themes 31
4.4 Findings 32
4.4.1 RQ1: How do females with low expressive traits perceive their roles in work and family? 32
4.4.1.1 The Absence of Intrinsic Motivation in the Domestic Life of a Housewife 32
4.4.1.2 Passionate About Work, Yet Placing High Value on Family role 35
4.4.2 RQ2: How do females in Taiwan reflect on and explain findings presented in previous research that show positive relationships between females with low expressive and/or high instrumental characteristic and work and family conflict? 38
4.4.2.1 Work is A Part of Self-Value Realization that Cannot Be Easily Sacrificed. 39
4.4.2.2 The Burden of Being A "Family Caregiver" for Females 45
4.4.2.3 The Dilemma of Decision-Making: Navigating Trade-offs and Difficult Choices between Work and Family 54
4.4.3 Summary 62
Chapter 5: Conclusion 64
5.1 Research Questions 64
RQ1: How do females with low expressive traits perceive their roles in work and family? 64
RQ2: How do females in Taiwan reflect on and explain findings presented in previous research that show positive relationships between females with low expressive and/or high instrumental characteristic and work and family conflict? 64
5.2 Limitations of this Study 67
5.3 Practical Implications 69
5.3.1 Individuals Action: Constructing Multiple Meanings of Motherhood 69
5.3.2 Family Support:Developing a Mechanism for Sharing Family Responsibilities 70
5.3.3 Enterprises Implement 71
5.3.4 Welfare System 74
5.4 Suggestions for Future Research 75
Reference 77
Appendix 88
Informed Consent Form 88
Online Survey 89
Interview Questions 95
Transcript (Take Participant D as An Example) 97

Reference
Ahmad, A. (1999). Gender role orientation of husbands and work-family conflict of wives in dual-earner families. Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 6(2), 1-10.
Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(2), 142-175.
Allen, T. D., French, K. A., Dumani, S., & Shockley, K. (2015). Meta-analysis of work-family conflict mean differences: Does national context matter? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 90(1), 90-100.
Ausubel, D. P. (1955). Relationships between shame and guilt in the socializing process. Psychological Review, 62(5), 378.
Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender: Stereotypes and Roles (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The psychological measurement of androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42 (2), 155-162.
Bianchi, S. M., Milkie, M. A., Sayer, L. C., & Robinson, J. P. (2000). Is anyone doing the housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor. Social Forces, 79(1), 191-228.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work-family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 169-198.
Chang, Y. Y., & Lu, L. (2011). Sex differences in the relationships among work and family demands, resources, and work-family conflict. International Journal of Commerce and Strategy, 3(1), 25-38.
Chen, J. W., Lu, L., & Wang, Y. J. (2013). To go or not to go? The unfolding of the self in young Taiwanese women in the decision-making process to work overseas. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, (39), 65-116.
Child Welfare League Foundation (2020). 2020 Taiwan Male Parenting Attitudes and Current Situation Survey Report. Retrieved from: https://www.children.org.tw/publication_research/research_report/340
Chou, W. C. G., Fosh, P., & Foster, D. (2005). Female managers in Taiwan: Opportunities and barriers in changing times. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2), 251-266.
Choudhury, P., Foroughi, C., & Larson, B. (2021). Work‐from‐anywhere: The productivity effects of geographic flexibility. Strategic Management Journal, 42(4), 655-683.
Choudhury, P., Khanna, T., Makridis, C., & Schirmann, K. (2022). Is hybrid work the best of both worlds? Evidence from a field experiment. Harvard Business School Technology & Operations Mgt. Unit Working Paper, (22-063).
Clark, S. C. (2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory of work/family balance. Human Relations, 53(6), 747-770.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Davis, & Shannon, N. (2007). Gender ideology construction from adolescence to young adulthood. Social Science Research 36(3), 1021-1041.
Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan. (2022). Human Resources Survey Statistical Annual Report, 2021. Taipei, DC: Author.
Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan. (2017). Report on Women’s Marriage, Fertility and Employment, 2016. Taipei, DC: Author.
Duckworth, J.D., & Buzzanell, P.M. (2009). Constructing work-life balance and fatherhood: men’s framing of the meanings of both work and family. Communication Studies, 60(5), 558-573.
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Reporting sex differences. American Psychologist, 42 (7), 756-757.
Featherstone, B. (1999). Reading the text: mothers' stories. In: Postmodern Feminist Perspectives (eds B. Fawcett etal.). Routledge, London: In press.
Folbre, & Nancy (1994). Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structure of Constraint. New York: Routledge Press.
Frye, N. K., & Breaugh, J. A. (2004). Family-friendly policies, supervisor support, work-family conflict, family-work conflict, and satisfaction: A test of a conceptual model. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2), 197-220.
Gaddy, C. D., Glass, C. R., & Arnkoff, D. B. (1983). Career involvement of women in dual-career families: The influence of sex role identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30 (3), 388-394.
Geldenhuys, M., Bosch, A., Jeewa, S., & Koutris, I. (2019). Gender traits in relation to work versus career salience. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 45(1), 1-8.
Geurts, S. A., & Demerouti, E. (2003). Work/non-work interface: A review of theories and findings. The handbook of work and health psychology, 2(1), 279-312.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources and conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76-88.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1999). Research on work, family, and gender: Current status and future directions. In Powell, G. N. (Ed.), Handbook of Gender and Work: 391-412. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76 (4): 560-568.
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values (Vol. 5). sage.
Hofstede-insights (2022). What about Taiwan? Retrieved from. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country/taiwan/
Huang, L. T. (2011). Self-identification about motherhood among mothers with pre-school children. Community Development Journal, 135, 354-363.
Institute of Labor, Occupational Safety And Health, MOL. (2018). Survey of Perceptions of Safety and Health in the Work Environment in 2016 Taiwan (ILOSH105-A309). Taipei, DC: Author.
Jackson, R. (1994). Mothers Who Leave. London: Pandora.
Jeffrey Hill, E., Yang, C., Hawkins, A. J., & Ferris, M. (2004). A cross‐cultural test of the work‐family interface in 48 countries. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(5), 1300-1316.
Kakkuri-Knuuttila, M.-L., Lukka, K., & Kuorikoski, J. (2008). Straddling between paradigms: A naturalistic philosophical case study on interpretive research in management accounting. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 33(2-3), 267-291.
Kaufman, G., & Taniguchi, H. (2019). Gender equality and work–family conflict from a cross-national perspective. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 60(6), 385-408.
Kuo, C. T. (2012). A Study of Glass Ceiling Phenomenon in Women's Career Development: Mid/Senior Level Female Executives in the Media Industry as an Example. [Master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan]
Li, M. C. (1981). The construction of gender traits inventory and the comparisons of four gender traits categories on achievement motive and attitudes toward marriage, career and sex. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 23 (1), 23-27.
Li, M. C., & Chung,C. Y. (1996). Gender and gender role analysis. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, (6), 260-299.
Li, T. S., Chang, Y. Y., & Teng, H. Y. (2014) Work/family stress and coping among child-rearing couples: Boundary setting and shifting. Formosa Journal of Mental Health, 27(1), 37-72.
Lian, H. J. (2020). A Study of Role Transition Experiences and the Challenges of Careerwomen Becoming Housewives [Master’s thesis, National Chi Nan University, Nantou, Taiwan]. DOI： 10.6837/ncnu202000145
Liu, H., & Ngo, H. Y. (2017). The effects of gender role orientation and career/family role salience on organizational identification and intention to leave. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 32 (2), 111-127.
Lu, L., Chang, T. T., & Chang, Y. Y. (2012). The meaning of work and family and its role in coping with work and family conflict: Practicing the Chinese bicultural self. Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies, (37), 141-189.
Lu, L., Chang, T. T., Kao, S. F., & Cooper, C. L. (2021). Do gender and gender role orientation make a difference in the link between role demands and family interference with work for Taiwanese workers? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 9807.
Lu, L., Huang, M. T., & Kao, S. F. (2005). The bi-directional conflict of work and family: Antecedents, consequences and moderators. Research in Applied Psychology, 27(9), 133-166.
Lu, L., Kao, S. F., Chang, T. T., & Cooper, C. L. (2020). Gender diversity and work-life conflict in changing times. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), 9009.
Lu, L., Kao, S.-F., Chang, T.-T., Wu, H.-P., & Cooper, C. L. (2011). Work/family demands, work flexibility, work/family conflict, and their consequences at work: A national probability sample in Taiwan. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 1(S), 68.
Lu, Y. H. (2011). Changes in gender-role attitudes in Taiwan, 1991-2001. Taiwanese Journal of Sociology, (48), 51-94.
Lu, Y. H., & Jou, Y. H. (2015). The Gender-role Attitudes construction from adolescence to young. Adulthood in the 21st century’s Taiwan. Taiwanese Journal of Sociology, (58), 95-155.
Lukka, K., & Modell, S. (2010). Validation in interpretive management accounting research. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 35(4), 462-477.
Masuda, A. D., Sortheix, F. M., Beham, B., & Naidoo, L. J. (2019). Cultural value orientations and work–family conflict: The mediating role of work and family demands. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 294-310.
Ministry of Justice. (2023). Act of Gender Equality in Employment. Law & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (Taiwan). https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=N0030014
Morse, J. M., & Richards, L. (2002). Read me first for a user's guide to qualitative methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Moudrý, D. V., & Thaichon, P. (2020). Enrichment for retail businesses: How female entrepreneurs and masculine traits enhance business success. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 54, 102068.
Ou, Y. S. (1989). Qualitative research. Taipei: Normal University Library.
Pan, S. M. (2003). Qualitative research: Theory and applications. Taipei: Psychological.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pleck, J. H. (2010). Paternal involvement: Revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 58-93). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Powell, G. N., and Greenhaus, J. H. (2010). Sex, gender, and the work-to-family interface: Exploring negative and positive interdependencies. Academy of Management Journal, 53 (3), 513-534.
Pulla, V., & Carter, E. (2018). Employing interpretivism in social work research. International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practic, 6(1), 9-14.
Radcliffe, L. S., & Cassell, C. (2015). Flexible working, work–family conflict, and maternal gatekeeping: The daily experiences of dual‐earner couples. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(4), 835-855.
Sayer, L. C. (2005). Gender, time and inequality: Trends in women's and men's paid work, unpaid work and free time. Social Forces, 84(1), 285-303.
Schutz, A. (1972). The phenomenology of the social world. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press.
Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Stone, P., & Lovejoy, M. (2021). Opting back in: What really happens when mothers go back to work. Oakland, California: University of California Press.
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145-161.
Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work-family benefits are not enough: The influence of work family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 392-415.
Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., & Hui, C. H. (1990). Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(5), 1006.
Trzebiatowski, T., & Triana, M. D. C. (2020). Family responsibility discrimination, power distance, and emotional exhaustion: When and why are there gender differences in work–life conflict? Journal of Business Ethics, 162(1), 15-29.
Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and motivation. Oxford, England: Wiley.
Walker, A. J. (1999). Gender and family relationships. In handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 439-474). Boston, MA: Springer US.
Wu, W. Y., & Minor, M. S. (1997). Role perceptions, personal traits, lifestyles and leadership: an empirical study of American, Japanese and Taiwanese managers. International Business Review, 6(1), 19-34.
Wu, W. Y., Lin, C. & Lee, L. Y. (2000) Personal characters, decision-making patterns and leadership styles of female managers; a comparative study of American, Taiwanese and Japanese female managers, Cross Cultural Management, 7(1), 8-32.
Xiong, A., Xia, S., Wang, Q., Lockyer, J., Cao, D., Westlund, H., & Li, H. (2022). Queen bees: How is female managers' happiness determined? Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 741576.
Zhao, K., Zhang, M., & Foley, S. (2019). Testing two mechanisms linking work-to-family conflict to individual consequences: Do gender and gender role orientation make a difference? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(6), 988-1009.
104 Job Bank, (2021). Women empower and uphold half of the sky! The glass ceiling, ten years gradually bring forth daylight. Retrieved from https://corp.104.com.tw/archive/files/news/20210505.pdf